The struggle for gender equality and justice is an important field of struggle in Iraq. Apart from state laws, there is different social structures, usually hidden or not considered as a political public issue, that hinder the struggle of equality. Often overlooked is how shame and reputation is used to control women, their access to the job market, their mobility, their social connection and their participation in the public and how this is connected to Iraq`s militia`s, religious-political figures and also tribal structures. This article tells the story of two women who are defying this system.

Yusra Muhammed is a 48 years old divorced women living in the Al-Rutba district of Anbar. Yusra is earning a living in the low paid sector as a baker sells 50 pieces of bread for $2 to provide for herself and her son. She describes how her status of divorced woman is perceived as threatening for society as a whole, including other women: “Some of my clients prevent me from working when their husbands are present at home because they are afraid that I would try to seduce their men because I’m a divorced and lonely woman.” At the same time, it is her profession as a baker that in Iraq is part of the low-paid sector that is dominated by young men and boys working and selling bread in small bakeries. 

Thus, it is considered shameful for Yusra to be working in this sphere, something that does not only affect Yusra but also her son. Whenever there is fights with other children, they call him inappropriate words such as: the servant’s son, that point to the low social position of his mother as a “servant”. This is societies demeaning answer as Yusra is selling bread cheaply in the market, a place dominated by male presence.

Reminding Yusra of her reputation as a divorced women working in a low-paid, male sector, society aims to control her since the mere position of Yusra within society has the potential of threatening the entire social structure that is based on extreme patriarchal control over women`s bodies, actions and their discourses.  “Everyone knows that this district is suffocated by tribal custom, were male power is strong. The power of the clan prevails in the absence of the authority of the law to run its affairs.” The Iraqi state broke down after the US-invasion of 2003. Since then, people`s safety has been secured by belonging to a tribe or militias. Not only physical safety but also people`s income often depends on their affiliation with tribal structures who are connected to political parties and militias that control state resources.

Historically, tribes have never been one and the same thing, their role and also internal structures have been changing in congruence with historical, political and economic changes. Thus, for example, in the 1970s, their power had been curbed and the Iraqi state had the monopoly of power. In the 1990s this changed as Saddam Hussein used the tribal leaders to control society better. Currently, with little state authority, people have little choice but to ask tribal leaders for support in any social or economic issues they have. For women, this means, that their life is connected and usually dependent on a man, a brother, father or husband, who is in some form part of the tribe where male honor and reputation decide about men`s social standing, income and physical safety. In daily life, this means that a woman whose reputation is ruined by society is connected to a `weak` male who has not been able to control her. This man is thereby threatened and pushed to `take action` to restore his honor and prove his masculine. His own physical safety and income depends on this. It is through this, that the reputation of a woman is directly connected to the reproduction of a patriarchal system that is the basis for a country controlled by militias. In Yusra`s case, there is no husband to control her and make sure she remains “an honorable woman” so she is constantly perceived as a threat. At the same time, her son is socially pressured to take up the position of control and protection over his mother.

At the same time, the tribal system determines in which fields women can work and what their access to this is: “Neither I nor any woman has the right to complete her studies and go to university because it is in Ramadi, the center of the Anbar. Therefore, all girls are forced to remain in agriculture, milking cows, raising cattle and chickens, baking and bringing food since this is seen as part of domestic work where women do not go outside.” However, the case of Yusra also shows that she is defying the system by continuing to make and sell bread in the marketplace, entering male spheres and contributing to a change of social norms.

The same is true for Shirma, a young women, 28 years old who is living together with her three kids in Bagdad: “Yes, a woman can live alone. I also live alone. At the same time, it is hard if you’re living by yourself. Your neighbors will call you a whore because if I don’t live with a man like a husband, then I’m not a good person, so they don’t talk to me and look down on me. Some of the guys there verbally abused me and called me slut, whore or ugly.” Shirma`s reputation is in threat, as she does not have a husband nor her father to control her. This makes her more vulnerable to insults and threats from society around her. Shirma got out of her marriage, where her husband used extreme control over Shirma and made life for her impossible: “I got married at 20. My suffering started when my ex- husband forced me to drop out of college, take my phone, and sit at home. And he thought that if I got my phone or finished my study, I might be cheating on him.”

In Shirma`s case, her husband controlled every detail of her life, even accessing the public sphere from home through social media. As Shirma got out of this relationship, she gained part of her personal freedom as she is living without her husband. At the same time, her status is, similar to Yusra`s. Neighbors and the society surrounding her are shaming her. Continuing her life, Shirma also defies and sets examples of women living independently from male protection.

Shame and the formation of a reputation are important for one`s survival, physical, economical and emotional, and therefore important ways to discipline society and reproduce a patriarchal system, that is led by militias, tribal leaders and religious political figures who control the public, financial resources of the state. In the absence of functioning Iraq state, it leaves little room for the safety of women to make their own living. Nevertheless, these women exist and defy the system on a daily basis.